Spanish grammar course
A Full Spanish Subjunctive Course Through Examples
This course turns the subjunctive into a decision habit: identify certainty vs non-certainty, choose the right mood, and practice producing Spanish from English before revealing the answer. It covers formation, trigger families, comprehensive trigger lists, tense sequence, time and purpose clauses, adjective clauses, perfect tenses, conditionals, tricky contrasts, and original literature/pop-culture style scenes.
1. The map: what the subjunctive is doing
The subjunctive is not mainly about time. It is about how the speaker presents the action: as wanted, doubted, emotional, hypothetical, not yet real, or dependent on another condition.
Core question: Am I reporting a fact, or am I reacting to / wanting / doubting /
imagining / requiring something? Facts tend toward the indicative. Non-facts and speaker attitude
often trigger the subjunctive.
The 15-second mood test: first find the main verb or expression. Then ask:
Does it assert the dependent clause as real? If yes, use indicative. Does it express will,
emotion, doubt, possibility, purpose, contingency, nonexistence, or future uncertainty? If yes,
expect subjunctive. If the same person does both actions, check whether Spanish prefers an
infinitive instead of que + subjunctive.
Indicative
Use it when the speaker presents the action as factual, known, evident, or asserted.
Sé que Marta viene.
I know Marta is coming.
Es verdad que ellos tienen tiempo.
It is true that they have time.
Subjunctive
Use it when the action is wanted, doubted, feared, recommended, hypothetical, or not yet realized.
Espero que Marta venga.
I hope Marta comes.
Es posible que ellos tengan tiempo.
It is possible that they have time.
Translation warm-up
I hope you understand the rule.present subj.
Espero que entiendas la regla.
Esperar que expresses hope about another subject, so use entiendas.
I know you understand the rule.indicative
Sé que entiendes la regla.
Saber que presents the action as known, so use the indicative.
I need you to understand why this matters.influence
Necesito que entiendas por qué esto importa.
Necesitar que with a different subject expresses desired action: subjunctive.
I need to understand why this matters.same subject
Necesito entender por qué esto importa.
Same subject: Spanish uses the infinitive, not necesito que yo entienda.
Diagnostic: Es evidente que... usually points to which mood?
Answer: Indicative. It presents the information as evident or asserted.
Diagnostic: No es evidente que... usually points to which mood?
Answer: Subjunctive. Negated certainty removes assertion.
2. Formation: how to build the present subjunctive
1
Start with the yo form of the present indicative.
2
Drop the final -o.
3
Add opposite endings: -ar verbs use e, es, e, emos, éis, en; -er/-ir verbs use a, as, a, amos, áis, an.
| Verb | Yo form | Stem | Subjunctive examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| hablar | hablo | habl- | hable, hables, hablemos |
| comer | como | com- | coma, comas, comamos |
| vivir | vivo | viv- | viva, vivas, vivamos |
| tener | tengo | teng- | tenga, tengas, tengamos |
| hacer | hago | hag- | haga, hagas, hagamos |
| decir | digo | dig- | diga, digas, digamos |
Six common irregulars: sea, vaya, esté, dé, sepa, haya.
Learn these early. They appear constantly.
| Pattern | What happens | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Yo-form irregulars | The present subjunctive usually inherits the irregular yo stem. | tengo → tenga, salgo → salga, conozco → conozca, traduzco → traduzca |
| Stem-changing -ar/-er | Keep normal present stem changes where they already happen. | pensar → piense, volver → vuelva, perder → pierda |
| Stem-changing -ir | Stem changes continue into nosotros/vosotros in adjusted form. | sentir → sienta, sintamos; dormir → duerma, durmamos; pedir → pida, pidamos |
| Spelling changes | Keep pronunciation before opposite endings. | buscar → busque, pagar → pague, empezar → empiece, proteger → proteja |
| CAR/GAR/ZAR | Same spelling logic as preterite yo. | toque, llegue, almuerce |
| Commands | Negative tú commands and formal commands use subjunctive forms. | No salgas. Hable usted. No lo hagamos. |
Present subjunctive endings
-ar: hable, hables, hable, hablemos, habléis, hablen
-er/-ir: coma, comas, coma, comamos, comáis, coman
The opposite vowel is the main idea: -ar moves to e; -er/-ir move to a.
Irregular core
ser: sea, seas, sea, seamos, seáis, sean
ir: vaya, vayas, vaya, vayamos, vayáis, vayan
haber: haya, hayas, haya, hayamos, hayáis, hayan
estar: esté, estés, esté, estemos, estéis, estén
dar: dé, des, dé, demos, deis, den
saber: sepa, sepas, sepa, sepamos, sepáis, sepan
Mini conjugation checks
Choose: Espero que Ana ___ temprano. (venir)
Answer: venga. Hope + different subject triggers subjunctive.
Choose: Es importante que él ___ la reserva. (hacer)
Answer: haga. Importance is a judgment, so use subjunctive.
Choose: Dudo que ellos ___ la respuesta. (saber)
Answer: sepan. Dudar que triggers subjunctive.
Choose: Necesito que ella ___ otra solución. (buscar)
Answer: busque. Buscar keeps the hard c sound with qu.
Choose: Es mejor que ___ ocho horas. (dormir, nosotros)
Answer: durmamos. -ir stem-changing verbs keep a reduced stem change in nosotros.
Do not tell anyone.negative command
No se lo digas a nadie. / No le digas nada a nadie.
Negative tú command uses the present subjunctive form: digas.
3. Trigger families with many examples
Do not memorize one giant list first. Learn the families. The trigger usually lives in the main clause; the subjunctive appears in the dependent clause after que.
Wishes, requests, influence
querer, preferir, pedir, recomendar, insistir, prohibir
Quiero que me llames.
I want you to call me.
Te recomiendo que salgas antes.
I recommend that you leave earlier.
Nos prohibieron que entráramos.
They prohibited us from entering.
Emotion and judgment
me alegra, siento, es bueno, es raro, es una pena
Me alegra que estés aquí.
I am glad you are here.
Es raro que no conteste.
It is strange that he/she is not answering.
Siento que no puedas venir.
I am sorry you cannot come.
Doubt, denial, possibility
dudar, negar, no creer, puede que, es posible
No creo que sea verdad.
I do not think it is true.
Puede que llueva esta tarde.
It may rain this afternoon.
Niega que haya un problema.
He/she denies there is a problem.
Purpose and prevention
para que, a fin de que, sin que
Te lo explico para que lo entiendas.
I explain it so that you understand it.
Salimos sin que nadie nos viera.
We left without anyone seeing us.
Comprehensive trigger atlas
Use this as a map, not as a robot list. A trigger matters because of what it does: it can impose will, react emotionally, deny certainty, set a purpose, describe a future condition, or refer to something that may not exist.
| Family | Common triggers | Natural example | Watch out |
|---|---|---|---|
| Will / desire | querer que, desear que, esperar que, preferir que, ojalá | Espero que te guste. | Esperar can mean "to wait": Espero a que llegue. |
| Influence | pedir que, decir que, mandar que, exigir que, dejar que, hacer que | Me pidió que volviera. | Decir que + information uses indicative: Dice que viene. |
| Advice | aconsejar que, recomendar que, sugerir que, proponer que | Te sugiero que lo revises. | Same subject often takes infinitive: Sugiero revisar esto. |
| Permission / prohibition | permitir que, prohibir que, impedir que, evitar que | Evita que el error se repita. | Evitar repetir if the subject is the same. |
| Emotion | alegrarse de que, sentir que, lamentar que, temer que, sorprender que | Me sorprende que sepas eso. | Emotion can react to known facts; Spanish still uses subjunctive. |
| Judgment / value | es bueno que, es mejor que, es raro que, es lógico que, conviene que | Conviene que practiques. | Factual certainty expressions are different: es cierto que + indicative. |
| Doubt / denial | dudar que, no creer que, negar que, no estar seguro de que | No estoy seguro de que funcione. | Affirmative belief usually uses indicative: Creo que funciona. |
| Possibility | es posible que, puede que, quizá, tal vez, posiblemente | Puede que sea tarde. | Adverbs like quizá can use either mood depending on certainty. |
| Purpose | para que, a fin de que, con el fin de que | Lo guardo para que no se pierda. | Same subject: para + infinitive. |
| Exception / condition | a menos que, salvo que, excepto que, con tal de que, siempre que | Iré con tal de que manejes tú. | Siempre que can mean "whenever" with indicative for habits. |
| Time, future | cuando, en cuanto, tan pronto como, hasta que, después de que | Te escribo cuando llegue. | Habitual/factual time uses indicative. |
| Concession | aunque, por más que, por mucho que | Aunque cueste, lo haré. | Known fact: aunque cuesta, lo hago. |
| Nonexistence | no hay nadie que, no existe nada que, ningún/ninguna que | No hay nadie que lo entienda. | Known existing person/thing uses indicative. |
| Indefinite relatives | quienquiera que, cualquiera que, dondequiera que, lo que sea | Quienquiera que venga, será bienvenido. | Formal forms are useful for reading; everyday Spanish often uses shorter patterns. |
| Independent wishes | ojalá, que tengas, que te vaya, que descanses | Que te vaya bien. | No main clause is needed; the wish is enough. |
Trigger lists by meaning
Usually subjunctive after que
- quiero que
- prefiero que
- espero que
- ojalá
- te pido que
- te recomiendo que
- insisto en que
- exijo que
- me alegra que
- siento que
- me molesta que
- es una pena que
- dudo que
- no creo que
- es posible que
- puede que
- para que
- sin que
- antes de que
- a menos que
Usually indicative after que
- sé que
- creo que
- pienso que
- supongo que
- es verdad que
- es cierto que
- es evidente que
- está claro que
- no dudo que
- me consta que
- he visto que
- recuerdo que
- descubrí que
- me di cuenta de que
- parece que
- resulta que
Translation drills: trigger families
I want them to try again.influence
Quiero que lo intenten otra vez.
Querer que + different subject: subjunctive.
She recommends that we read the article.recommendation
Ella recomienda que leamos el artículo.
Recomendar que triggers subjunctive: leamos.
It is strange that he knows so much.judgment
Es raro que sepa tanto.
A subjective judgment about the fact uses subjunctive.
I am sorry that you are tired.emotion
Siento que estés cansado/cansada.
Emotion about someone else's state: subjunctive.
It is possible that they arrive late.possibility
Es posible que lleguen tarde.
Possibility is non-certainty: subjunctive.
I do not think she has the keys.doubt
No creo que tenga las llaves.
Negative belief usually triggers subjunctive.
I am going to write it down so that you do not forget it.purpose
Voy a apuntarlo para que no se te olvide.
Para que introduces purpose and takes subjunctive.
They insisted that we not publish the ending.influence
Insistieron en que no publicáramos el final.
Insistence in the past + dependent action: imperfect subjunctive.
I will go as long as you come with me.condition
Iré con tal de que vengas conmigo.
Con tal de que sets a condition for a future action: subjunctive.
No story exists that explains everything perfectly.nonexistence
No existe ninguna historia que lo explique todo perfectamente.
Nonexistent antecedent: subjunctive in the relative clause.
4. Subjunctive vs indicative: the meaning changes
Some expressions do not always use the same mood. The mood depends on whether the speaker presents the information as known or unknown, asserted or doubted.
| Indicative: asserted/known | Subjunctive: doubted/unknown |
|---|---|
| Creo que tiene razón. I think he/she is right. | No creo que tenga razón. I don't think he/she is right. |
| Busco el libro que está en mi mesa. I am looking for the book that is on my desk. | Busco un libro que explique esto. I am looking for a book that explains this. |
| Cuando llego, te llamo. When I arrive, I call you. Habit. | Cuando llegue, te llamaré. When I arrive, I will call you. Future. |
| Aunque es caro, lo compro. Although it is expensive, I buy it. Known fact. | Aunque sea caro, lo compraré. Even if it is expensive, I will buy it. Hypothetical. |
Certainty, negated certainty, and questions
| Expression | Typical mood | Example | Reason |
|---|---|---|---|
| Creo que / pienso que | Indicative | Creo que viene. | The speaker asserts the belief. |
| No creo que / no pienso que | Subjunctive | No creo que venga. | The speaker withholds assertion. |
| ¿Crees que...? | Usually indicative | ¿Crees que viene? | The question asks about a possible fact. |
| ¿No crees que...? | Often indicative | ¿No crees que es raro? | Often expects agreement, like "Don't you think...?" |
| Dudo que | Subjunctive | Dudo que funcione. | Doubt blocks assertion. |
| No dudo que | Indicative common | No dudo que funciona. | Negated doubt becomes confidence. |
| Quizá / tal vez / posiblemente | Either | Quizá viene. / Quizá venga. | Indicative sounds more likely; subjunctive sounds less certain. |
Important nuance: Spanish mood is not just grammar; it also signals stance.
Quizá viene suggests the speaker leans toward yes. Quizá venga leaves more distance.
Decision checks
Choose: Creo que ella ___ razón.
Answer: tiene. Affirmative creer que presents belief/assertion.
Choose: No creo que ella ___ razón.
Answer: tenga. No creer que introduces doubt/non-assertion.
Choose: Necesito una app que me ___ los errores.
Answer: explique. You need an app with a desired quality; it may not exist yet.
Choose: No dudo que el método ___ si lo usas cada día.
Answer: funciona. No dudo que expresses confidence, so indicative is natural.
Choose: Tal vez Ana ___, pero no estoy seguro.
Answer: venga fits the uncertainty. Viene is possible if the speaker leans toward yes.
Don't you think this chapter is useful?rhetorical question
¿No crees que este capítulo es útil?
This asks for agreement and presents usefulness as likely, so indicative is natural.
I do not think this chapter is useless.negated belief
No creo que este capítulo sea inútil.
No creer que triggers subjunctive: sea.
5. Time clauses: future event vs habitual fact
Many time expressions use the subjunctive when they point to a future event that has not happened yet.
Future time expression + not yet real: cuando, en cuanto, tan pronto como,
hasta que, antes de que, después de que + subjunctive.
| Connector | Subjunctive when... | Indicative when... | Example contrast |
|---|---|---|---|
| cuando | future/not yet happened | habit or past fact | Cuando llegue, llamo. / Cuando llego, llamo. |
| en cuanto / tan pronto como | future endpoint | habit or known event | En cuanto lo sepa, te digo. / En cuanto lo sé, te digo. |
| hasta que | future limit | past/habitual limit | Esperaré hasta que vuelvas. / Esperé hasta que volviste. |
| después de que | future sequence | completed/known sequence | Después de que termines, salimos. / Después de que terminaste, salimos. |
| antes de que | almost always subjunctive | rarely indicative in modern use | Hazlo antes de que se olvide. |
| sin que | usually subjunctive | indicates absence of an event | Se fue sin que nadie lo viera. |
| a menos que / salvo que | exception to a future or general statement | rarely indicative | No saldré a menos que me llames. |
Future / not yet happened
Cuando termine, descansaré.
When I finish, I will rest.
Te aviso en cuanto llegue.
I will let you know as soon as I arrive.
No salgas hasta que vuelva.
Do not leave until I come back.
Habitual / factual
Cuando termino, descanso.
When I finish, I rest.
Te aviso en cuanto llego.
I let you know as soon as I arrive.
No salgo hasta que vuelve.
I do not leave until he/she comes back.
Translation drills: future time
Call me when you arrive.cuando + future
Llámame cuando llegues.
The arrival is future/not yet realized, so llegues.
I will study until I understand it.hasta que
Estudiaré hasta que lo entienda.
The understanding is the future endpoint, so subjunctive.
As soon as we have the tickets, we will reserve the hotel.en cuanto
En cuanto tengamos las entradas, reservaremos el hotel.
Future event after en cuanto: tengamos.
She left without anyone noticing.sin que
Se fue sin que nadie se diera cuenta.
Sin que introduces an event that did not happen: imperfect subjunctive.
Do it before the app closes.antes de que
Hazlo antes de que se cierre la app.
Antes de que normally takes subjunctive because the event is anticipated.
I always write down new words after I hear them.habit
Siempre apunto las palabras nuevas después de que las oigo.
Habitual factual sequence: indicative is natural.
I will write down the word after I hear it.future sequence
Apuntaré la palabra después de que la oiga.
Future dependent event: subjunctive.
6. Imperfect subjunctive: past, hypothetical, polite
The imperfect subjunctive often appears when the main clause is in the past or conditional, or when the situation is hypothetical.
Formation shortcut: third-person plural preterite: hablaron, tuvieron, hicieron.
Drop -ron. Add: -ra, -ras, -ra, -ramos, -rais, -ran.
The -se forms are also correct: hablase, tuviese, fuese. They are common in
writing and in some regions/registers. In this course, the answer key mostly uses -ra
because it is the most common everyday form.
| Verb | Preterite ellos | Stem | Imperfect subjunctive |
|---|---|---|---|
| hablar | hablaron | habla- | hablara, hablaras, habláramos |
| tener | tuvieron | tuvie- | tuviera, tuvieras, tuviéramos |
| hacer | hicieron | hicie- | hiciera, hicieras, hiciéramos |
| ir / ser | fueron | fue- | fuera, fueras, fuéramos |
Quería que me ayudaras.
I wanted you to help me.
Era importante que todos llegaran a tiempo.
It was important that everyone arrive on time.
Me gustaría que vinieras con nosotros.
I would like you to come with us.
Sequence of tenses: which subjunctive tense?
| Main clause | Dependent action | Likely subjunctive | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present/future trigger | same time or future | Present subjunctive | Espero que vengas. |
| Present trigger | completed before now | Present perfect subjunctive | Me alegra que hayas venido. |
| Past trigger | same time or later than past trigger | Imperfect subjunctive | Esperaba que vinieras. |
| Past trigger | completed before past trigger | Past perfect subjunctive | Me alegró que hubieras venido. |
| Conditional trigger | hypothetical desired action | Imperfect subjunctive | Me gustaría que vinieras. |
| Conditional perfect/regret | unreal completed action | Past perfect subjunctive | Me habría gustado que hubieras venido. |
Translation drills: imperfect subjunctive
I wanted you to tell me the truth.past wish
Quería que me dijeras la verdad.
Past main clause quería + wanted action: imperfect subjunctive.
It was necessary that we leave early.past judgment
Era necesario que saliéramos temprano.
Past judgment + dependent action: saliéramos.
I would like them to be more careful.conditional main clause
Me gustaría que fueran más cuidadosos.
Conditional main clause often pairs with imperfect subjunctive.
The director asked us to arrive before dawn.past influence
La directora nos pidió que llegáramos antes del amanecer.
Past request + dependent action: imperfect subjunctive.
I was surprised that nobody had solved the mystery.past perfect subj.
Me sorprendió que nadie hubiera resuelto el misterio.
Past reaction to an earlier completed action: past perfect subjunctive.
7. Commands: where the subjunctive becomes an instruction
Commands are not only about telling someone what to do. They are one of the most practical places where subjunctive forms appear every day. Formal commands, negative commands, and nosotros commands use subjunctive forms. Affirmative tú commands are the main exception.
Core command map: affirmative tú has its own short form: habla, come, escribe.
Negative tú, usted/ustedes commands, and nosotros commands use present subjunctive forms:
no hables, hable usted, hablemos.
| Command type | Pattern | Example | What to remember |
|---|---|---|---|
| Affirmative tú | 3rd-person singular indicative for most verbs | Habla. Come. Escribe. | Usually not subjunctive. |
| Negative tú | no + present subjunctive tú | No hables. No comas. No escribas. | Always think subjunctive. |
| Usted | present subjunctive usted | Hable. Coma. Escriba. | Polite/formal command. |
| Ustedes | present subjunctive ustedes | Hablen. Coman. Escriban. | Plural command in Latin America and formal plural in Spain. |
| Vosotros | affirmative infinitive -r → -d; negative subjunctive | Hablad. No habléis. | Mainly Spain. |
| Nosotros | present subjunctive nosotros | Hablemos. No salgamos. | "Let's..." / "Let's not..." |
The eight irregular affirmative tú commands
| Verb | Command | Example |
|---|---|---|
| decir | di | Di la verdad. |
| hacer | haz | Haz la tarea. |
| ir | ve | Ve al mercado. |
| poner | pon | Pon la mesa. |
| salir | sal | Sal ahora. |
| ser | sé | Sé paciente. |
| tener | ten | Ten cuidado. |
| venir | ven | Ven conmigo. |
Pronouns: attach for affirmative, place before negative
Affirmative
Attach object/reflexive pronouns to the command. Add an accent if stress needs to stay in place.
Dímelo.
Tell it to me.
Escríbeselo.
Write it to him/her/them.
Levántate.
Get up.
Negative
Put pronouns before the verb. The verb is subjunctive for negative tú and formal commands.
No me lo digas.
Do not tell it to me.
No se lo escribas.
Do not write it to him/her/them.
No te levantes.
Do not get up.
Nosotros commands and spelling traps
| Meaning | Spanish | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Let's go. | Vamos. | Common fixed form; vayamos is possible but more formal/emphatic. |
| Let's not go. | No vayamos. | Negative uses subjunctive. |
| Let's sit down. | Sentémonos. | Drop final -s before nos: sentemos + nos → sentémonos. |
| Let's not sit down. | No nos sentemos. | Pronoun before negative command. |
| Let's look for it. | Busquémoslo. | Spelling change: buscar → busquemos. |
| Let's pay. | Paguemos. | Spelling change: pagar → paguemos. |
Commands as subjunctive triggers
A command in the main clause can also introduce a dependent subjunctive clause. This happens when you command someone to make, let, ask, prevent, or require another action.
Dile que venga temprano.
Tell him/her to come early.
No dejes que te convenzan.
Do not let them convince you.
Haz que todos participen.
Make sure everyone participates.
Command drills
Choose the natural negative tú command: "Do not do it."
Answer: No lo hagas. Negative tú command uses subjunctive and pronoun before the verb.
Choose the affirmative command: "Tell it to me."
Answer: Dímelo. Affirmative command attaches pronouns.
Choose: "Let's not go."
Answer: No vayamos. Negative nosotros command uses subjunctive.
Read the message, but do not answer yet.command contrast
Lee el mensaje, pero no contestes todavía.
Affirmative tú: lee. Negative tú: present subjunctive contestes.
Please, tell me the truth.affirmative tú
Por favor, dime la verdad.
Affirmative tú command of decir is irregular: di; with me attached: dime.
Please, do not tell me the ending.negative tú
Por favor, no me digas el final.
Negative tú command uses subjunctive: digas; pronoun before the verb.
Speak more slowly, ma'am/sir.usted
Hable más despacio, por favor.
Formal usted command uses the subjunctive form: hable.
Let's practice until it sounds natural.nosotros + hasta que
Practiquemos hasta que suene natural.
Nosotros command: practiquemos. Future endpoint after hasta que: suene.
Do not let them leave before we finish.command + subj.
No dejes que se vayan antes de que terminemos.
No dejes que triggers subjunctive; antes de que also takes subjunctive.
Make sure the app saves your notes.haz que
Haz que la app guarde tus notas.
Haz que expresses causing/ensuring another action: subjunctive guarde.
8. Combining subjunctive with conditionals
This is where the subjunctive becomes powerful. Spanish often uses an imperfect subjunctive in the if clause and a conditional in the result clause.
Pattern: Si + imperfect subjunctive, conditional.
Si tuviera más tiempo, estudiaría todos los días.
Si tuviera más tiempo, estudiaría todos los días.
Important trap: Spanish does not use the future tense or the present subjunctive
immediately after si in ordinary if-clauses. Say Si tengo tiempo, iré,
not si tendré or si tenga. Use the imperfect subjunctive only when the condition
is hypothetical or contrary to fact: Si tuviera tiempo, iría.
| Condition type | Spanish pattern | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Open / real | Si + indicative, present/future/command | Si tienes tiempo, ven. | If you have time, come. |
| Unreal now | Si + imperfect subjunctive, conditional | Si tuvieras tiempo, vendrías. | If you had time, you would come. |
| Past counterfactual | Si + hubiera + participle, habría + participle | Si hubieras tenido tiempo, habrías venido. | If you had had time, you would have come. |
| Mixed: past condition, present result | Si + hubiera + participle, conditional | Si hubiera estudiado, ahora hablaría mejor. | If I had studied, I would speak better now. |
| As if | como si + imperfect/past perfect subjunctive | Habla como si lo supiera todo. | He speaks as if he knew everything. |
Conditional forms: the result side
| Infinitive | yo | tú | él/ella | nosotros | ellos |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| hablar | hablaría | hablarías | hablaría | hablaríamos | hablarían |
| poder | podría | podrías | podría | podríamos | podrían |
| tener | tendría | tendrías | tendría | tendríamos | tendrían |
| hacer | haría | harías | haría | haríamos | harían |
| decir | diría | dirías | diría | diríamos | dirían |
The conditional uses the same endings as the imperfect of -er/-ir verbs: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían. Irregular stems match the future: tendr-, podr-, har-, dir-, querr-.
Unreal or unlikely now
Si viviera en Madrid, iría al Prado cada mes.
If I lived in Madrid, I would go to the Prado every month.
Si supiera la respuesta, te la diría.
If I knew the answer, I would tell you.
Si pudieras venir, cenaríamos juntos.
If you could come, we would have dinner together.
Past counterfactual
Si lo hubiera sabido, habría llamado.
If I had known, I would have called.
Si me lo hubieras dicho, te habría ayudado.
If you had told me, I would have helped you.
Important: conditionals can also trigger imperfect subjunctive after que
Me encantaría que vinieras.
I would love for you to come.
Sería mejor que lo hiciéramos mañana.
It would be better if we did it tomorrow.
Preferiría que no me llamaras tan tarde.
I would prefer that you not call me so late.
El villano actúa como si fuera invencible.
The villain acts as if he were invincible.
La detective habló como si ya hubiera resuelto el caso.
The detective spoke as if she had already solved the case.
Condition connectors beyond si
| Connector | Typical mood | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| si | indicative for real/open; imperfect subjunctive for unreal | Si viene, salimos. / Si viniera, saldríamos. | if |
| a menos que | subjunctive | No iré a menos que me invites. | unless |
| con tal de que | subjunctive | Te ayudo con tal de que escuches. | provided that |
| siempre que | subjunctive when conditional; indicative when habitual | Iré siempre que paguen. / Siempre que pagan, voy. | as long as / whenever |
| en caso de que | subjunctive | Llama en caso de que haya un problema. | in case |
| por si | usually indicative | Lleva agua por si hace calor. | in case |
Translation drills: subjunctive + conditional
If I had more time, I would read more in Spanish.si + imperfect subj.
Si tuviera más tiempo, leería más en español.
Unreal present condition: tuviera + conditional leería.
If you practiced every day, you would speak with more confidence.si + imperfect subj.
Si practicaras todos los días, hablarías con más confianza.
Practicaras in the if-clause; hablarías in the result.
I would like you to explain it again.conditional main clause
Me gustaría que lo explicaras otra vez.
Conditional desire + que commonly takes imperfect subjunctive.
It would be better if we left before eight.sería mejor que
Sería mejor que saliéramos antes de las ocho.
Sería mejor que gives a recommendation/judgment: imperfect subjunctive.
If they had told us the truth, we would have understood.past counterfactual
Si nos hubieran dicho la verdad, habríamos entendido.
Past counterfactual: pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo + conditional perfect.
I would travel more if flights were cheaper.si + imperfect subj.
Viajaría más si los vuelos fueran más baratos.
Either order works: conditional result + si + imperfect subjunctive.
What would you do if you lost your passport?question
¿Qué harías si perdieras el pasaporte?
Hypothetical question: conditional + si + imperfect subjunctive.
If you have time tonight, watch the episode.real condition
Si tienes tiempo esta noche, mira el episodio.
Open real condition: indicative after si.
If you had time tonight, you would watch the episode.unreal condition
Si tuvieras tiempo esta noche, verías el episodio.
Unreal/hypothetical present: imperfect subjunctive + conditional.
The actor speaks as if he had lived in Buenos Aires.como si
El actor habla como si hubiera vivido en Buenos Aires.
Como si takes imperfect or past perfect subjunctive for hypothetical comparison.
If I had watched the first season, I would understand the finale now.mixed conditional
Si hubiera visto la primera temporada, ahora entendería el final.
Past unreal condition with present result: hubiera visto + entendería.
If you come tomorrow, we will start early.real future condition
Si vienes mañana, empezaremos temprano.
Real/open if-clause uses present indicative after si, not future or subjunctive.
If you came tomorrow, we would start early.hypothetical condition
Si vinieras mañana, empezaríamos temprano.
Hypothetical condition: imperfect subjunctive + conditional.
I will help you provided that you try first.con tal de que
Te ayudaré con tal de que lo intentes primero.
Con tal de que introduces a condition: subjunctive.
Bring the charger in case the battery dies.en caso de que
Trae el cargador en caso de que se acabe la batería.
En caso de que takes subjunctive.
Bring the charger just in case the battery dies.por si
Trae el cargador por si se acaba la batería.
Por si commonly uses indicative, unlike en caso de que.
If I were studying in Spain now, I would speak every day.progressive hypothetical
Si estuviera estudiando en España ahora, hablaría todos los días.
Hypothetical ongoing condition: estuviera + gerund, then conditional.
If the app had saved my notes, I would not be rewriting them now.mixed counterfactual
Si la app hubiera guardado mis notas, no las estaría reescribiendo ahora.
Past unreal condition with present progressive conditional result.
9. Tricky patterns: where learners overuse or miss the subjunctive
A lot of mistakes come from treating the subjunctive as a mechanical response to one word. In real Spanish, the mood depends on the speaker's relationship to the information: known, unknown, asserted, denied, desired, hypothetical, or merely described.
Same subject: often infinitive, not que + subjunctive
If the same person does both actions, Spanish often uses an infinitive: Quiero ir,
not quiero que yo vaya. Use que + subjunctive when the subject changes.
| Same subject | Different subject |
|---|---|
| Quiero descansar. I want to rest. | Quiero que tú descanses. I want you to rest. |
| Prefiero hacerlo hoy. I prefer to do it today. | Prefiero que lo hagamos hoy. I prefer that we do it today. |
| Necesito salir temprano. I need to leave early. | Necesito que ellos salgan temprano. I need them to leave early. |
I want to understand the subjunctive.same subject
Quiero entender el subjuntivo.
Same subject: quiero entender, not quiero que entienda.
I want you to understand the subjunctive.different subject
Quiero que entiendas el subjuntivo.
Different subject: use que + subjunctive.
We prefer to leave after lunch.same subject
Preferimos salir después de comer.
Same subject: infinitive after preferir.
We prefer that they leave after lunch.different subject
Preferimos que salgan después de comer.
Different subject: salgan.
Maybe yes, maybe no: adjective clauses
Use indicative when the noun is specific and known. Use subjunctive when the noun is indefinite, desired, denied, or not known to exist.
| Known / specific | Unknown / desired / nonexistent |
|---|---|
| Tengo un amigo que vive en Sevilla. I have a friend who lives in Seville. | Busco un amigo que viva en Sevilla. I am looking for a friend who lives in Seville. |
| Hay una clase que empieza hoy. There is a class that starts today. | No hay ninguna clase que empiece hoy. There is no class that starts today. |
| Conozco una app que corrige errores. I know an app that corrects errors. | Necesito una app que corrija errores. I need an app that corrects errors. |
I am looking for a teacher who can explain this clearly.unknown person
Busco un profesor / una profesora que pueda explicar esto claramente.
You are looking for someone with a desired quality; existence is not asserted.
I have a teacher who can explain this clearly.known person
Tengo un profesor / una profesora que puede explicar esto claramente.
Known teacher, factual ability: indicative.
There is nobody here who knows the answer.nonexistent antecedent
No hay nadie aquí que sepa la respuesta.
Nobody exists in the set; use subjunctive.
Is there anyone here who speaks Catalan?unknown antecedent
¿Hay alguien aquí que hable catalán?
The speaker does not know whether such a person exists.
Although vs even if: aunque
Aunque + indicative means "although" with a known fact. Aunque + subjunctive means "even if" with a hypothetical or irrelevant condition.
Known fact
Aunque tengo poco tiempo, estudio.
Although I have little time, I study.
Aunque está lejos, vamos.
Although it is far away, we are going.
Hypothetical / doesn't matter
Aunque tenga poco tiempo, estudiaré.
Even if I have little time, I will study.
Aunque esté lejos, iremos.
Even if it is far away, we will go.
Although I am tired, I am going to practice.known fact
Aunque estoy cansado/cansada, voy a practicar.
You present tiredness as a fact: indicative.
Even if I am tired, I will practice.hypothetical
Aunque esté cansado/cansada, practicaré.
Future hypothetical condition: subjunctive.
Quiz: choose the mood
Choose: Conozco a una persona que ___ gallego.
Answer: habla. The person is known.
Choose: Busco a una persona que ___ gallego.
Answer: hable. The person is desired/unknown.
Choose: Aunque ___ tarde, siempre llega tranquilo. (habit/fact)
Answer: sale. Habitual factual statement.
Choose: Aunque ___ tarde, llegará a tiempo. (even if)
Answer: salga. Hypothetical concession.
10. Perfect subjunctive: has done, had done, would have done
The subjunctive also has compound tenses. These are essential for talking about completed actions that are still doubted, regretted, hoped for, or imagined.
| Tense | Form | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present perfect subjunctive | haya + participle | Completed action relevant now | Espero que hayas dormido bien. |
| Past perfect subjunctive | hubiera/hubiese + participle | Past counterfactual or past completed uncertainty | Si hubiera estudiado, habría aprobado. |
| Conditional perfect | habría + participle | Result of a past unreal condition | Habría llamado antes. |
Present perfect subjunctive: use it when the trigger is present but the dependent action
is already complete: Me alegra que hayas venido, Dudo que lo hayan terminado.
Me alegra que hayas venido.
I am glad you came / have come.
No creo que lo hayan entendido.
I do not think they understood it / have understood it.
Es posible que ya se hayan ido.
It is possible they have already left.
Past counterfactuals
Si + hubiera + participle, habría + participle is the standard pattern for
"If X had happened, Y would have happened."
Si me hubieras avisado, habría esperado.
If you had warned me, I would have waited.
Si no hubiera llovido, habríamos salido.
If it had not rained, we would have gone out.
Translation drills: perfect subjunctive
I am glad you finished the course.present perfect subj.
Me alegra que hayas terminado el curso.
Present emotion about completed action: hayas terminado.
I doubt they have read the instructions.present perfect subj.
Dudo que hayan leído las instrucciones.
Present doubt about a completed action.
It is possible that she has already left.present perfect subj.
Es posible que ya se haya ido.
Possibility + completed action: se haya ido.
If I had had more patience, I would have learned faster.past counterfactual
Si hubiera tenido más paciencia, habría aprendido más rápido.
Past unreal condition: hubiera tenido + habría aprendido.
If we had known the rule, we would not have made the mistake.past counterfactual
Si hubiéramos sabido la regla, no habríamos cometido el error.
Past unreal condition with nosotros: hubiéramos sabido.
I wish I had practiced more yesterday.ojalá + past perfect subj.
Ojalá hubiera practicado más ayer.
Ojalá with regret about the past: past perfect subjunctive.
11. Literature, film, music, and pop-culture style scenes
The examples here are original, but they imitate situations you will recognize from novels, songs, shows, films, games, and internet culture. The subjunctive appears constantly when characters want, fear, doubt, command, conceal, search, regret, and imagine.
A Don Quijote-style quest
El caballero busca un enemigo que sea digno de su lanza.
The knight is looking for an enemy who is worthy of his lance.
Su amigo le ruega que no confunda los molinos con gigantes.
His friend begs him not to confuse windmills with giants.
Aunque todos le digan que está loco, él seguirá adelante.
Even if everyone tells him he is mad, he will continue.
Magical-realism town
La abuela teme que la lluvia no termine nunca.
The grandmother fears that the rain will never end.
No hay nadie en el pueblo que recuerde el primer día de la tormenta.
There is nobody in the town who remembers the first day of the storm.
Como si el tiempo se hubiera cansado, los relojes dejaron de moverse.
As if time had grown tired, the clocks stopped moving.
Detective series
La detective duda que el testigo haya dicho toda la verdad.
The detective doubts that the witness has told the whole truth.
Necesita una pista que conecte al sospechoso con la estación.
She needs a clue that connects the suspect to the station.
Si el sospechoso hubiera tomado el tren, habría aparecido en las cámaras.
If the suspect had taken the train, he would have appeared on the cameras.
Superhero movie
La ciudad espera que la heroína llegue antes de medianoche.
The city hopes the heroine arrives before midnight.
El mentor insiste en que ella controle su poder.
The mentor insists that she control her power.
Aunque el villano parezca invencible, tiene una debilidad.
Even if the villain seems invincible, he has a weakness.
Pop song without quoting lyrics
El coro repite que ojalá ella vuelva antes del amanecer.
The chorus repeats that hopefully she comes back before dawn.
El cantante habla como si el amor fuera una ciudad en ruinas.
The singer speaks as if love were a ruined city.
Le duele que nadie entienda lo que perdió.
It hurts him that nobody understands what he lost.
Video-game quest
El mapa exige que el jugador encuentre tres llaves antes de entrar.
The map requires the player to find three keys before entering.
No cruces el puente hasta que aparezca la señal.
Do not cross the bridge until the signal appears.
Quien resuelva el acertijo abrirá la puerta secreta.
Whoever solves the riddle will open the secret door.
Culture scene translation drills
The knight wants his friend to believe him.literary influence
El caballero quiere que su amigo le crea.
Querer que + different subject: present subjunctive.
The detective needs a witness who is not afraid.unknown antecedent
La detective necesita un testigo que no tenga miedo.
The witness is desired/unknown, so use subjunctive.
If the hero had arrived earlier, the city would have been saved.past counterfactual
Si el héroe hubiera llegado antes, la ciudad se habría salvado.
Past unreal condition: hubiera llegado + habría salvado.
Even if the song sounds happy, the story is sad.aunque + hypothetical
Aunque la canción suene alegre, la historia es triste.
The sound is treated as a hypothetical concession: subjunctive.
The final boss acts as if he had already won.como si
El jefe final actúa como si ya hubiera ganado.
Como si + past perfect subjunctive for unreal completed comparison.
Whoever finds the hidden letter will understand the ending.quien + subj.
Quien encuentre la carta escondida entenderá el final.
Indefinite whoever + future result: subjunctive.
12. Mixed quiz: translate before revealing
Say or write your Spanish first. Then open the card. Many answers have alternatives; the goal is to choose the right mood and a natural structure.
I hope she can come tomorrow.present subj.
Espero que pueda venir mañana.
Hope + different subject: pueda.
I am sure she can come tomorrow.indicative
Estoy seguro/a de que puede venir mañana.
Certainty uses indicative.
Don't leave until I call you.time clause
No te vayas hasta que te llame.
Future endpoint after hasta que: subjunctive.
I need someone who speaks Spanish and Arabic.unknown antecedent
Necesito a alguien que hable español y árabe.
The person is indefinite/desired, so subjunctive.
I know someone who speaks Spanish and Arabic.known antecedent
Conozco a alguien que habla español y árabe.
Known person, factual trait: indicative.
Even if it rains, we will go.aunque + hypothetical
Aunque llueva, iremos.
The rain is hypothetical: subjunctive.
Although it is raining, we are going.aunque + known fact
Aunque está lloviendo, vamos.
Known fact: indicative.
I wanted you to stay a little longer.imperfect subj.
Quería que te quedaras un poco más.
Past desire: imperfect subjunctive.
If we lived closer, we would see each other more.conditional
Si viviéramos más cerca, nos veríamos más.
Hypothetical condition: imperfect subjunctive + conditional.
It is better that you do not say anything.recommendation
Es mejor que no digas nada.
Recommendation/judgment: subjunctive.
I will send you the address so that you can find the place.purpose
Te mandaré la dirección para que puedas encontrar el sitio.
Purpose after para que: subjunctive.
If I had known that, I would not have gone.past counterfactual
Si hubiera sabido eso, no habría ido.
Past unreal condition: hubiera sabido + habría ido.
I do not deny that the scene is beautiful.negated doubt
No niego que la escena es hermosa.
No niego que often affirms the fact, so indicative is natural. Some speakers may use subjunctive if they still distance themselves.
I deny that the scene is realistic.denial
Niego que la escena sea realista.
Denial blocks assertion: subjunctive.
Maybe the author is hiding a clue.quizá
Quizá el autor esconda una pista. / Quizá el autor esconde una pista.
Subjunctive sounds more uncertain; indicative sounds like the speaker leans toward it.
We need a scene that explains the villain's motive.desired antecedent
Necesitamos una escena que explique el motivo del villano.
The scene is desired/needed, not presented as known: subjunctive.
We found the scene that explains the villain's motive.known antecedent
Encontramos la escena que explica el motivo del villano.
Specific found scene: indicative.
Tell me the truth, even if it hurts.aunque + subj.
Dime la verdad, aunque duela.
The pain is a possible consequence, not asserted as a fact.
Although it hurts, I want to know the truth.aunque + indicative
Aunque duele, quiero saber la verdad.
The pain is presented as real/known: indicative.
It would bother me if they changed the ending.conditional reaction
Me molestaría que cambiaran el final.
Conditional emotional reaction + dependent hypothetical action: imperfect subjunctive.
Had I known the twist, I would have watched it differently.inverted English
Si hubiera sabido el giro, la habría visto de otra manera.
English inversion still maps to Spanish si + past perfect subjunctive.
13. Tricky sentence lab: translate, then diagnose the mood
These are deliberately close pairs and edge cases. Before revealing the answer, say out loud: trigger, subject change?, known or unknown?, time frame?, mood.
Close pairs: one word changes the mood
I believe he is telling the truth.creer + indicative
Creo que dice la verdad.
Affirmative belief presents the statement as asserted.
I do not believe he is telling the truth.no creer + subj.
No creo que diga la verdad.
Negative belief withdraws assertion, so use subjunctive.
It is obvious that they are learning.certainty
Es obvio que están aprendiendo.
Certainty/evidence uses indicative.
It is not obvious that they are learning.negated certainty
No es obvio que estén aprendiendo.
Negated certainty introduces doubt: subjunctive.
I suppose he knows where we are.suponer + indicative
Supongo que sabe dónde estamos.
Affirmative supposition normally asserts the idea enough for indicative.
I do not suppose he knows where we are.no suponer + subj.
No supongo que sepa dónde estamos.
Negative supposition removes assertion: subjunctive.
Time, purpose, and hidden subject changes
I study Spanish every night before I go to bed.habit
Estudio español todas las noches antes de acostarme.
Same subject after antes de: infinitive. Habit/fact, not a future dependent event.
I will study Spanish before you go to bed.antes de que
Estudiaré español antes de que te acuestes.
Different subject after antes de que and future event: subjunctive.
I am leaving so that I can rest.same subject purpose
Me voy para descansar.
Same subject purpose: para + infinitive.
I am leaving so that you can rest.para que
Me voy para que puedas descansar.
Different subject purpose: para que + subjunctive.
We always eat when everyone arrives.habit
Siempre comemos cuando llega todo el mundo.
Habitual time clause: indicative.
We will eat when everyone arrives.future time
Comeremos cuando llegue todo el mundo.
Future dependent event after cuando: subjunctive.
Conditionals and recommendations
If I were you, I would not translate word for word.si fuera
Si fuera tú / Si yo fuera tú, no traduciría palabra por palabra.
Hypothetical identity: imperfect subjunctive + conditional.
I would recommend that you not translate word for word.conditional recommendation
Te recomendaría que no tradujeras palabra por palabra.
Conditional recommendation triggers imperfect subjunctive.
If Spanish were easy, nobody would study grammar.contrary-to-fact
Si el español fuera fácil, nadie estudiaría gramática.
Unreal condition now: fuera + estudiaría.
If Spanish is easy for you, you do not need this course.real condition
Si el español es fácil para ti, no necesitas este curso.
Real/open condition uses indicative after si.
If Spanish were easy for you, you would not need this course.hypothetical condition
Si el español fuera fácil para ti, no necesitarías este curso.
Hypothetical condition: imperfect subjunctive + conditional.
Perfect subjunctive and regret
I am surprised that they have not answered yet.present perfect subj.
Me sorprende que todavía no hayan contestado.
Present reaction to a completed/non-completed action: present perfect subjunctive.
It bothers me that you have forgotten it again.present perfect subj.
Me molesta que se te haya olvidado otra vez.
Reaction now to a completed event: se te haya olvidado.
I wish they had told me sooner.past regret
Ojalá me lo hubieran dicho antes.
Ojalá + past perfect subjunctive expresses regret about the past.
If I had gone to Spain earlier, I would have learned faster.past counterfactual
Si hubiera ido a España antes, habría aprendido más rápido.
Past unreal condition: hubiera ido + habría aprendido.
More production drills
Whatever happens, I will keep studying.lo que + subj.
Pase lo que pase, seguiré estudiando.
Fixed pattern with repeated subjunctive: whatever happens.
Wherever you go, you will hear different accents.donde + subj.
Vayas donde vayas, oirás acentos diferentes.
Indefinite/generalizing pattern with repeated subjunctive.
Whoever says that is wrong.quien + subj.
Quien diga eso se equivoca.
Indefinite whoever: subjunctive in the relative clause.
I will not believe it unless I see it.a menos que
No lo creeré a menos que lo vea.
A menos que usually introduces a future/conditional exception: subjunctive.
Take an umbrella in case it rains.por si / en caso de que
Lleva un paraguas por si llueve. / Lleva un paraguas en caso de que llueva.
Por si often uses indicative; en caso de que uses subjunctive.
Capstone: two or three decisions in one sentence
I will recommend the novel to anyone who wants a story that makes them doubt what is real.relative + influence
Recomendaré la novela a cualquiera que quiera una historia que le haga dudar de lo que es real.
Cualquiera que + subjunctive; desired story quality + subjunctive; hacer que/influence idea with haga.
If the detective had believed the child, she would have found the clue before the villain escaped.past counterfactual + antes de que
Si la detective hubiera creído al niño, habría encontrado la pista antes de que el villano escapara.
Past counterfactual plus antes de que + imperfect subjunctive.
I doubt the audience understood the ending, although the director says it is obvious.doubt + asserted fact
Dudo que el público haya entendido el final, aunque la directora dice que es obvio.
Doubt about completed action: present perfect subjunctive. The director's statement is asserted: indicative.
Let whoever has seen the episode explain it without spoiling the ending.indefinite + sin que
Que lo explique quien haya visto el episodio, sin que arruine el final.
Indefinite whoever with completed action: haya visto. Sin que introduces avoided result: subjunctive.
I would love for there to be a game that taught grammar as if it were a mystery.conditional desire + como si
Me encantaría que hubiera un juego que enseñara gramática como si fuera un misterio.
Conditional desire: imperfect subjunctive. Unknown game quality: imperfect subjunctive. Como si: imperfect subjunctive.
14. Reference sheet
| Situation | Common pattern | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Wish / influence | querer/recomendar/pedir que + subj. | Quiero que vengas. |
| Emotion | me alegra/siento/es una pena que + subj. | Me alegra que estés aquí. |
| Doubt / denial | dudar/no creer/negar que + subj. | No creo que sea tarde. |
| Certainty | saber/creer/es verdad que + indicative | Sé que es tarde. |
| Purpose | para que + subj. | Lo repito para que lo recuerdes. |
| Future time | cuando/en cuanto/hasta que + subj. | Te llamaré cuando llegue. |
| Commands | negative tú, usted, ustedes, nosotros use subjunctive | No salgas. Hable usted. Practiquemos. |
| Hypothetical condition | si + imperfect subj., conditional | Si pudiera, viajaría. |
| Past counterfactual | si + hubiera + participle, habría + participle | Si hubiera estudiado, habría aprobado. |
| Conditional connector | a menos que/con tal de que/en caso de que + subj. | Iré con tal de que vengas. |
Subjunctive tenses at a glance
| Name | Form | Main use | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present subjunctive | yo stem + opposite endings | Present/future hopes, doubts, reactions, purpose | Espero que vengas. |
| Present perfect subjunctive | haya + participle | Completed action viewed through present doubt/reaction | Me alegra que hayas venido. |
| Imperfect subjunctive | ellos preterite stem + -ra endings | Past triggers, hypothetical present, conditional desires | Quería que vinieras. Si pudiera... |
| Past perfect subjunctive | hubiera + participle | Regret, past counterfactual, earlier action under past trigger | Ojalá hubiera sabido. |
Fast trigger checklist
- Wish or command? querer, pedir, recomendar, exigir, insistir, dejar, hacer.
- Emotion or judgment? me alegra, siento, temo, es bueno, es raro, conviene.
- Doubt or denial? dudo, no creo, niego, no estoy seguro.
- Possibility? puede que, es posible que, quizá, tal vez.
- Purpose or prevention? para que, a fin de que, sin que, evitar que.
- Future time or condition? cuando, en cuanto, hasta que, a menos que, con tal de que.
- Unknown or nonexistent noun? busco alguien que, no hay nadie que, necesito algo que.
- Hypothetical comparison? como si + imperfect/past perfect subjunctive.
- Command form? negative tú, formal commands, and nosotros commands use subjunctive forms.
Things that often do not take subjunctive
| Pattern | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Affirmative certainty | saber, creer, pensar, estar seguro, es cierto | Sé que viene. |
| Real conditions with si | open conditions | Si tienes tiempo, ven. |
| Known adjective clauses | specific existing noun | Tengo un libro que explica eso. |
| Habitual time clauses | repeated/factual time relation | Cuando llego, te llamo. |
| Same-subject purpose/desire | infinitive instead of que + subjunctive | Quiero aprender. Salgo para descansar. |
Practice habit: before revealing a drill, identify the trigger, decide whether the action is factual
or non-factual, choose present vs imperfect subjunctive, then translate.